Causes of Private Security Industry Growth

Causes of Private Security Industry Growth The increase in criminal activity and the heightened fear of crime, has led to the growth of the private security industry. This paper will address the expansion of private security and discuss the extent to which the services offered by private security reflects those that are offered by the state. It will firstly locate the discourse of what constitutes private security and public security. It will then analyze the factors that have contributed to the expansion of the private security industry and provide examples of this expansion. Finally, the essay will briefly discuss how this expansion has affected and benefitted the hotel industry, which for the most part, relies on private security for its sustainability. The field of private security is relatively new, and project many dimensions which are yet to be explored and defined. Not least of which is the contentious issue of defining â€Å"security† and positioning the concept within the discourse of private security. (Gill: 2006) The contention is relevant because security is an umbrella term utilized by many disciplines, and private security in the 21st century is not only about protection by arms or coercion, it is also about protecting electronic data and other technological assets. Although private security has often been linked to policing, it has proven to be a controversial topic to pin down by definition. Freedman (1992) simplified the concept by stating that security is achieved â€Å"when bad things do not happen rather than when good things do†. Zedner emphasized that security is not only about prevention but it is also about â€Å"the positive reinforcement of public perceptions of their safety.† (Zedner: 20 00) Button offered the following definition of private security: â€Å"The term ‘private security’ is a generic term used to describe an amalgam of distinct industries and professions bound together by a number of functions, including crime prevention, order maintenance, loss reduction and protection†¦The industry also includes certain public sector security employees†¦where their role is paralleled in the private sector industry, the interest served is private and they hold no special statutory powers.† (Button: 2002) However, a consensus has developed that policing is a function of the state, associated with a number of practices aimed at ensuring the adherence to rules and regulations, preventing and reacting to crime, restoring order and utilizing a variety of methods including the bearing of arms to achieve these aims. (Shearing and Stenning: 1983) Given that many of these functions correspond with keeping on the right side of juridical laws, policing has been traditionally seen as a function of the state. Nevertheless, with the increase in the fear of crime, sprung many entities that that carry out these same very functions, but they are not â€Å"the police† – they operate under what is known as the private security industry. The area of private security that most resembles public policing is contract security. Johnston (2000) maintains that contract security can be separated into four sections: physical/mechanical security, electronic security, staffed services and in-house se curity such as protection of assets for factories, banks, etc. While employment rate figures within the private security sector are notably unreliable, available evidence indicate that the high number of persons employed within the sector has significantly increased and points to a definite expansion. In 1998, the estimated 180,000 staff size of within the security services and equipment sector was â€Å"equivalent to the combined police and civilian staff of the 43 constabularies in England and Wales†. (Jones and Newburn: 1998) The UK Census data for 1951-1991 showed that there was a 240% increase in the number of persons employed in private security as opposed to a 100% increase in police employment during the same period. By 2000, George and Button reported that there were 217,000 private security personnel directly engaged in policing, while the number of police officers (excluding non-Home Office police workers) stood at 156, 300 in the United Kingdom. (George and Button: 2000) In Canada and the United States, the public police have shared the task of policing with the private organizations and private security personnel outnumbering the staff compliment of their national police force since 1977. (Shearing and Stenning: 1983) The most visible evidence of the expansion of private security is the high number of contract security personnel employed by private enterprises. With more governments being fiscally responsible and seeking to restrict public spending (Jones and Newburn: 1997), governments do not have the resources to provide the kind of security that private entities desire. This has ushered in a slow erosion of the state’s monopoly on policing. Another reason for the expansion of private security is the fact that many public activities now occur within private spaces. Examples of this are large shopping malls with hundreds of stores as separate entities, residential compounds and university campuses. Public policing is traditionally mandated to utilize its limited resources to operate on state owned property e.g. streets and parks. Owners of private properties have also demonstrated a preference for private security since it gives them more control over their property and the public is increasingly aware that limited resources mean that state security has to be dispensed with â€Å"police discretion†, wherein, many factors can affect which crimes are prioritized. (Newburn and Reiner: 2007) In light of these developments, private security is indeed mirroring the services traditionally offered by the state to protect property. (Shearing and Stenning: 1983) Consequently, the blurring of the lines between the state police and private security to protect private spaces, have resulted in private security adopting levels of legal authority which sometimes exceed those of the public police. For example, it is now common for private security in stores, malls and businesses to demand and carry out random searches, insist on the surrender of property for entry or exit of a property and to disclose personal information. (Zedner: 2000) The move by governments to engage and solicit community participation to combat crime, has resulted in many neighbourhood watch programs and initiatives that buy into the concepts of private security. Zedner (2000) posits that as governments push policies that encourage more personal responsibility for safety, it has provided the environment for private security to blossom. It is essential to note, that private security has also expanded because of a lack of trust in the ability of the state to provide personal security, especially to standards demanded by 21st century business owners and customers. Zedner explains that the expansion â€Å"reflects a loss of faith in the guarantees offered by the formal system of state security†. (Zedner: 2000) This however means that private security has developed as a highly commercialized commodity where only those who can afford it will receive the benefits of â€Å"peace of mind† and sense of security that it provides. One industry which has bought into the protection guarantees sold by the private security industry, is the hotel and hospitality industry. The paper will now examine how private security has expanded within the hotel industry. The nature of the hotel industry requires an assurance to customers that they and their possessions are safe so that they do not have the security concerns which they may harbour in their own homes. However, hotels are also uniquely placed to be the targets of criminals which may take advantage of its non-intrusive atmosphere and the many opportunities it presents for a diverse range of illegal activities such as: theft, fraud, public order issues, prostitution and being used as bases by criminals. (Gill et al: 2007) The range of security issues for hotels is reflected in the operations of the many contracted private security firms. Some of these issues are: ensuring well lit hotel corridors, CCTV in car parks and lobbies, entrances and exits, having security officers trained in unarmed defence, plain clothes personnel bearing firearms, site arrests by security personnel leading to convictions, security patrols by plain clothes and uniformed personnel and security personnel carrying handcuffs. (Shortt and Ruys: 1994) In fact, Gill (2006) asserts that many private security personnel have been formally accredited by the police, to assist in policing entities like hotels in their capacity as private security agents. It is therefore conclusive to say that, indeed, private security has greatly expanded, and the discussion and examples presented in this paper, provide some indication of why and how this expansion has occurred. Not only do private security personnel now perform many duties formerly conducted by the state police, but in many cases they are encouraged by the state to compliment crime prevention and property protection efforts. Furthermore, the increasingly individualistic nature of most societies, suggests that self-reliance and dependency on private security will only become more entrenched. It is near impossible to locate security services by the state in democratic societies, which are not duplicated by private security interests. (Gill (2006) Consequently, it is almost universally accepted that security in modern societies will henceforth be a cooperative effort between the state and the private security industry. Bibliography Button, M. (2002) Private Policing. Cullompton: Willan Publishing. George, B. Button, M. (2000) Private Security. Leicester: Perpetuity Press. Gill, M., Moon, C., Seaman, P., Turbin, V. (2007) Security Management and Crime in Hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 14 (2), pp. 58-64. Gill, M. (ed.) (2006) The Handbook of Security. New York: Macmillan Freedman, L. (1992) ‘The Concept of Security’ in M. Hawkesworth and M. Kogan (eds.) Encyclopedia of Government and Politics, Vol. 2, London: Routledge, 73G-41. Johnston, L. (2000) Policing Britain: Risk, Security and Governance. Harlow: Longman. Jones, T. and Newburn, T. (1997) Policing After the Act: Police Governance After the Police and Magistrates’ Courts Act 1994. London: Policy Studies Institute. Newburn, T., Reiner, R. (2007) ‘Policing the Police’ in Mike Maguire, Rod Morgan, Robert Reiner (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shearing, C. and Stenning, P. (1983) Private Security: Implications for Social Control. Social Problems, Vol. 30 (5), pp. 493-506. Shortt, G. and Ruys, H. (1994) Hotel Security: The Needs of the Mature Age Market. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 6 (5), pp. 14-19. Zedner, L. (2000) ‘The Pursuit of Security’ in Tim Hope and Richard Sparks (eds.) Crime, Risk and Insecurity: Law and Order in Everyday Life and Political Discourse. London: Routledge.

Ernst Mach vs. Bertrand Russell

The purpose of this paper is to show that while Ernst Mach and Bertrand Russell share similar views on matter and knowledge, their end conclusions differ. Mach believes humans think in an economical manner where past experiences and knowledge are systematically reorganized to fit a pattern (Mach 211). Rather than analysing each experience in detail, humans refer to similar or related experiences as groups, which allows for the â€Å"least expenditure of thought† (Mach 197). In line with this mentality springs the concept of ‘things’ and ‘bodies’. Mach states that colours, sounds, temperatures, etc. re called sensations (Mach 208-209). When certain sensations are present repeatedly, they would fit into a pattern. To allow for future reference on this knowledge within the mind, the pattern receives a label. An example would be when a person sees an orange, bouncy, sphere object which has a mildly rough texture, the label ‘basketball’ spring s to mind. The ‘basketball’ would not be a physical object; it would simply be a â€Å"mental symbol† for the sensations and Mach states that â€Å"symbols do not exist outside of thought† (Mach 201). Russell believes that certain things, such as a table or a cat, consist of sense-data hich are colours, sounds, smells, etc. and that the immediate awareness of such things is known as a sensation (Russell 12). Also, the existence of an object is not necessarily associated with the sense-data as different people receive different sense-data when they are under the belief that they are viewing the same object (Russell 20). In addition, a person would only know the certainty of perceived sense-data rather than of the object since sense-data depends on the perception and relation of the object to the perceiver (Russell 16). Russell then states that although there is no proof of a physical world, the belief that there are objects corresponding to sense-data allows for the simplification people’s experiences. Therefore, believing in an external world is easier than thinking otherwise. Both Mach and Russell believe in the perception of colours, sounds, etc. but they label them differently; Mach calls them sensations and Russell calls them sense-data. Also, neither doubts the existence of these perceptions as they reside within the mind. Mach does not call into question the experience of sensations and Russell states that there is no doubt for the existence of sense-data (Russell 18). This indicates that both believe in physical causes that create such perceptions, but not necessarily believe in the existence of physical objects. In addition, both regard human knowledge to be built up from instinctive beliefs and the economic categorization of these beliefs form the basis of science and an organization of information (Mach 191; Russell 25). The two philosophers differ in views when regarding the existence of the physical world. Mach states that the idea of substance is a â€Å"crude notion† and that â€Å"bodies or things† do not exist in the external world (Mach 201, 203). In contrast, Russell asserts that it is instinctive belief to believe in an â€Å"independent external world† and since this belief â€Å"does not lead to any difficulties†, there is no reason to reject the belief (Russell 24). Mach’s overall view seems more sceptical relative to Russell since, even though he mentions that humans can easily believe that things other than sensations exist outside of thought, with no proof, he considers objects to be merely labels which only reside within the mind. This may be due to the reasoning that solid justification should support a notion for it to be a valid belief. Mach regards science in a negative light as he states it uses â€Å"lavish extravagance† and comments that, in the form of personification that â€Å"she needs [no] justification of her aims† (Mach 189). Russell, on the other hand, seems to believe that questioning the existence of the physical world and objects within it to be a difficult task and in turn states that believing such a simple, systematic notion of an external world would be a better solution. When he cites Descartes’ systematic method of doubt to be an attempt to deny the existence of everything but oneself, he inquires on the firmness of the theory in regards to â€Å"‘I think, therefore I am’â€Å"(Russell 19). By addressing a strong theory that questions the existence of everything, then indicating the flaws within the theory, Russell demonstrates the difficulty in creating a sound theory which denies the physical world. Almost similar in Descartes’ perspective in the belief of the existence of an Evil Genius, Russell takes the position that if there is no proof denying the existence of a physical world then the possibility of it allows for belief in physical objects and an external world (Russell 24-25). In conclusion, Mach and Russell have similarities in their theories, but their overall views greatly differ. Mach and Russell’s view on perceptions such as colour, sound, etc. are similar, although each has different labels for the ideas: sensations and sense-data, respectively. In addition, both believe in the simplicity or economy of knowledge. The philosophers then differ in the belief of an external world, where Mach denies the existence of physical objects, where Russell believes in such a notion. Russell’s acceptance of an external world seems more in line with the economical nature of knowledge as understanding the idea of an external world is easier and allows for better explanations for perceptions of colour, sound, etc. Both philosophers have sound theories but neither has evidence where anything is absolutely certain and as such the study of philosophy continues to address doubts which revolve around our reality. Works Cited Mach, Ernst. Popular Scientific Lectures. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1898. Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. London: Oxford University Press, 1912.

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Pushing Back . The Saying “A Healthy Outside Starts From

Pushing Back The saying â€Å"A healthy outside starts from a healthy inside,† is very true for students for students that wake up too early for school. If students do not get enough sleep then when they get to school they will be unproductive because they will be too tired. When a student wakes up with less than six hours of sleep not only will the student be tired on the outside at school, but the student is also affected inside their body long term. Some will say that the student needs to go to bed earlier; however, if school start times would be pushed back thirty to forty minutes the problem could be solved and students would get enough sleep. The starting time now for schools is creating problems for the students like affecting their†¦show more content†¦Next, the extra amounts of sleep will allow students to concentrate more during school. With more sleep, the student becomes less fidgety and stops thinking about other things. When a student is tired that is all they think about and they will not be able to do something because they are too tired. Therefore, with school start times pushed back, they will be more active in school activities and will listen to the teacher thoroughly because they will not being thinking about other things. When a student gets optimal sleep, they are ready for their day and do not want to go back to sleep right away. During school hours, the students will participate in class duties and actually do their work when given time, rather than taking a quick snooze. Also, with more sleep, the chances of a student falling asleep during class becomes less likely because they will not be tired. Every student must concentrate in order to have a successful day and the reason for students to not concentrate can be linked to the amounts of sleep that they get at night. Lastly, the extra sleep creates more school success for both students and teachers. Students will begin to excel more in their studies because they will not be tired. When the students are not tired; they can learn better.Show MoreRelatedChild Obesity As An Issue Of Injustice1728 Words   |  7 Pagesmay be getting violated as people start to feel bad for themselves and lose the respect they have for themselves. The catholic social teaching that is violated by child obesity is the rights and responsibilities; children are looked on poorly and are treated unjustly because of their weight in society. Individually obesity can be a huge problem for someone to get a grasp on and overcome, kids may sometimes get depressed because of their weight and others start to get stressed. As a whole the populationRead MoreTeachers, Counselors, And Even Parents Seem To Think That1403 Words   |  6 PagesTeachers, Counselors, and even parents seem to think that pushing students towards applying to college early is helping them out. 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